Cybernetics refers to a tradition of complex systems where the interacting elements influence one another. In this tradition communication is seen as a system of processing information, feedback and control. Parts of the system are interdependent and this is allows the system to organize itself.

Wiener defined cybernetics as “the science of control and communications in the animal and machine.” This definition relates cybernetics closely with the theory of automatic control and also with physiology, particularly the physiology of the nervous system.

The cybernetics of systemS that are observed from the outside as opposed to the cybernetics of systems involving their observers (von Foerster). First-order cybernetics is concerned with circular causal processes, e.g., control, negative feedback, computing, adaptation. ( Krippendorff)

In the critical tradition communication is seen as a reflective challenge of unjust discourse. It is critical of societies that limit the masses from seeing inequalities through the use of communication. Above all in this tradition, social action and theory cannot be separated from each other. …

From a first order epistemological stance, the therapist perceives reality as something that one can discover through a process of observation without being influenced by this process. Second order cybernetics sees the observer as part of the observed.

First-order change is doing more – or less – of something we are already doing. First-order change is always reversible. Second-order change is deciding – or being forced – to do something significantly or fundamentally different from what we have done before.

A second-order cybernetics approach views the reality of the problem as linguistically shaped by those interacting around it, including the therapist and observing team members. In our approach, the therapist elicits from each person his or her story about the illness in the family.

A positive feedback loop is completed in therapy when deviation from a family system’s normal functioning is amplified (by either therapist or family member) rather than reduced and more variation in the system occurs. Families dominated by negative feedback loops are characteristically stable and homeostatic.

Second-Order Change. Second-order changes involve not just changes in behavior, but changes (or “violations”) of the rules of the system itself. Example: * John and Mary fight all the time. * Next time they fight, John does a silly dance.

Second order change can be characterized by complex changes that threaten the whole system. The changes require new and different skills and knowledge that was not existent before. There is a lot of conflict with existing norms and values.

A first-order reaction rate depends on the concentration of one of the reactants. A second-order reaction rate is proportional to the square of the concentration of a reactant or the product of the concentration of two reactants.

A second order reaction is a type of chemical reaction that depends on the concentrations of one-second order reactant or two first-order reactants. This reaction proceeds at a rate proportional to the square of the concentration of one reactant, or the product of the concentrations of two reactants.

A first-order reaction can be defined as a chemical reaction in which the reaction rate is linearly dependent on the concentration of only one reactant. In other words, a first-order reaction is a chemical reaction in which the rate varies based on the changes in the concentration of only one of the reactants.

1/t means that the order of reaction is a first order. Meaning that the rate of reaction is directly proportional to reactant concentration. Scientists work with the standard units, therefore 1/t is 1 divide by 1 second.

No. A rate constant(k) cannot be negative because it is measuring how fast the concentration changes over time so it cannot be a negative value.

Examples of Zero Order Reaction

• The reaction of hydrogen with chlorine also known as a Photochemical reaction. H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl. Rate = k[H2]0 [Cl2]0
• Decomposition of nitrous oxide on a hot platinum surface. N2O → N2 + 1/2 O2
• Decomposition of NH3 in the presence of molybdenum or tungsten is a zero-order reaction.

For a zero-order reaction, increasing the concentration of the reacting species will not speed up the rate of the reaction. A reaction is zero-order if concentration data is plotted versus time and the result is a straight line.