When a threat is perceived, the sympathetic nerve fibres of the autonomic nervous system are activated. This leads to the release of certain hormones from the endocrine system. In physiological terms, a major action of these hormones is to initiate a rapid, generalized response.

Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system coordinates the body’s functions to maintain homeostasis during rest and exercise. The nervous and endocrine systems also work together to initiate and control movement, and all the physiological processes movement involves.

Some of these stressful responses can lead to endocrine disorders like Graves’ disease, gonadal dysfunction, psychosexual dwarfism and obesity. Stress can also alter the clinical status of many preexisting endocrine disorders such as precipitation of adrenal crisis and thyroid storm.

The sympathetic system is responsible for increasing heart rate, increasing blood pressure and increasing blood sugar to help you to perform when stress hits. When you are stressed, this system triggers these necessary responses, and the function of your rest and digest system is reduced.

Hormones produced by the pituitary and adrenal glands regulate growth, stress, sexual functions, and chemical balance in the body. The adrenal glands produce epinephrine and norepinephrine, the hormones responsible for our reactions to stress.

The primary difference between nervous system and endocrine system is in nervous system electrical impulses are used, whereas the endocrine system involves chemical signal called hormones. Secondly, the nervous system is formed by a collection of neuron cells, glands and organs operate the endocrine system.

The pituitary gland

The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis.

The hormones created and released by the glands in your body’s endocrine system control nearly all the processes in your body. These chemicals help coordinate your body’s functions, from metabolism to growth and development, emotions, mood, sexual function and even sleep.

What Are the Main Functions of the Endocrine System?

• Metabolism (the burning of fuels by the body)
• Growth and development.
• Sexual function and reproduction.
• Blood pressure.
• Appetite (satiety and hunger)
• Sleeping and waking cycles.

Endocrine system function

• metabolism.
• growth and development.
• sexual function and reproduction.
• heart rate.
• blood pressure.
• appetite.
• sleeping and waking cycles.
• body temperature.

What Does the Endocrine System Do?

• Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream.
• The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and development, the way our organs work, metabolism , and reproduction.
• The endocrine system regulates how much of each hormone is released.

How can you prevent endocrine problems?

1. Stay at a healthy weight. Eat healthy foods and get plenty of exercise.
2. Include iodine in your diet. It can help prevent thyroid problems.
3. Make sure all your doctors know about any hormones you’re taking.

Hormones produced by the pituitary gland

• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Luteinising hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

The following are integral parts of the endocrine system:

• Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain, near the optic chiasm where the optic nerves behind each eye cross and meet.
• Pineal body.
• Pituitary.
• Thyroid and parathyroid.
• Thymus.
• Adrenal gland.
• Pancreas.
• Ovary.

The glands of the endocrine system are:

• Hypothalamus.
• Pineal Gland.
• Pituitary Gland.
• Thyroid.
• Parathyroid.
• Thymus.
• Adrenal.
• Pancreas.

Common endocrine disorders include diabetes mellitus, acromegaly (overproduction of growth hormone), Addison’s disease (decreased production of hormones by the adrenal glands), Cushing’s syndrome (high cortisol levels for extended periods of time), Graves’ disease (type of hyperthyroidism resulting in excessive thyroid …

There is another type of gland called an exocrine gland (e.g. sweat glands, lymph nodes). These are not considered part of the endocrine system as they do not produce hormones and they release their product through a duct.

pancreas

Thyroid – it is made up of glands. Hence, a part of the endocrine system that helps in producing, storing, and releasing hormones into the bloodstream so that it can reach the body’s cells. So, the correct answer is, “Liver”.

The pituitary gland, the parathyroid glands and the inner layer of the adrenal gland (adrenal medulla) are almost all made up of neuroendocrine cells. Other sites of neuroendocrine cells include the thymus, kidneys, liver, prostate, skin, cervix, ovaries and testicles.

The hypothalamus has a central neuroendocrine function, most notably by its control of the anterior pituitary, which in turn regulates various endocrine glands and organs. It is also known that hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) hormones are related to certain skin diseases and skin homeostasis.

These cells are bottle- or flask-like in shape, and reach from the basement membrane to the lumen. They can be distinguished by their profile of bioactive amines and peptides, namely serotonin, calcitonin, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), chromogranin A, gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and cholecystokinin.

Types of Neuroendocrine Tumors

• Carcinoid tumors in the lungs, gastrointestinal tract or thymus.
• Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (islet cell cancer)
• Medullary thyroid carcinoma.
• Merkel cell carcinoma (neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin)
• Pheochromocytoma of the adrenal gland.
• Adrenal cancer.

Neuroendocrine tumors are rare and can occur anywhere in the body. Most neuroendocrine tumors occur in the lungs, appendix, small intestine, rectum and pancreas.

Neuroendocrine tumors can be classified according to their site of origin, usually either pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (which start in the pancreas) or carcinoid tumors (which start in other organs). Carcinoid tumors most commonly start in the lungs, small intestine, appendix, or rectum.

The 5-year survival rate for people with pancreatic NET that has not spread to other parts of the body from where it started is 93%. If the tumor has spread to nearby tissue or the regional lymph nodes, the 5-year survival rate is 77%. If the tumor has spread to distant areas of the body, the survival rate is 25%.

When completely removing the tumor is not possible, “debulking surgery” is sometimes recommended. Debulking surgery removes as much of the tumor as possible and may provide some relief from symptoms, but it generally does not cure a NET.

In many cases, neuroendocrine tumors are very small and slow growing. Studies show that these types of tumors can potentially last a lifetime without causing symptoms or spreading.

In addition, the following tests may be used to diagnose a NET:

1. Biopsy.
2. Blood/urine tests.
3. Molecular testing of the tumor.
4. Endoscopy.
5. Ultrasound.
6. X-ray.
7. Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scan.
8. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).